Brief History of Tajikistan free essay sample

The Tajik people came under Russian rule in the 1860. Tajikistan became an autonomous Soviet socialist republic within Uzbekistan in 1924; Basmachi resistance in the wake of the Russian Revolution of 1917 was quelled in 1925, and Tajikistan became one of the component Soviet socialist republics in 1929 called Tadzhik SSR from 1936 to 1991. Tajikistan gained independence in 1991, and has experienced three changes in government and a civil war since then. A peace agreement among rival factions was signed in 1997 but its implementation has progressed slowly. Pre-Islamic Period (600 BC–AD 651) Tajikistan was part of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex in the Bronze Age, candidate for Proto-Indo-Iranian or Proto-Iranian culture. Tajikistan was part of Scythia in Classical Antiquity. Most of modern Tajikstan had formed parts of ancient Kamboja and Parama Kamboja kingdoms, which find references in the ancient Indian epics like the Mahabharata. Linguistic evidence, combined with ancient literary and inscriptional evidence has led many eminent Indologists to conclude that ancient Kambojas (an Avestan speaking Iranain tribe) originally belonged to the Ghalcha-speaking area of Central Asia. We will write a custom essay sample on Brief History of Tajikistan or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Achariya Yasakas Nirukta [1] (7th c BCE) attests that verb Savati in the sense to go was used by only the Kambojas. It has been shown that the modern Ghalcha dialects, Valkhi, Shigali, Sriqoli, Jebaka (also called Sanglichi or Ishkashim), Munjani, Yidga and Yagnobi, mainly spoken in Pamirs and countries on the headwaters of the Oxus, still use terms derived from ancient Kamboja Savati in the sense to go [2]. The Yagnobi dialect spoken in Yagnobi province around the headwaters of Zeravshan valley in Sogdiana, also still contains a relic Su from ancient Kamboja Savati in the sense to go [3]. Further, Sir G Grierson says that the speech of Badakshan was a Ghalcha till about three centuries ago when it was supplanted by a form of Persian [4]. Thus, the ancient Kamboja, probably included the Badakshan, Pamirs and northern territories including Yagnobi province in the doab of the Oxus and Jaxartes [5]. On the east it was bounded roughly by Yarkand and/or Kashgar, on the west by Bahlika (Uttaramadra), on the northwest by Sogdiana, on the north by Uttarakuru, on the southeast by Darada, and on the south by Gandhara. Numerous Indologists locate original Kamboja in Pamirs and Badakshan and the Parama Kamboja further north, in the Trans-Pamirian territories comprising Zeravshan valley, north up parts of Sogdhiana/Farganain the Sakadvipa or Scythia of the classical writers [6]. Thus, in the pre-Buddhist times (7th/6th c BCE), the parts of modern Tajikstan including territories as far as Zeravshan valley in Sogdiana formed parts of ancient Kamboja and the Parama Kamboja kingdoms when it was ruled by Iranian Kambojas till it became part of Achaemenid Empire. Sogdiana, Bactria, Merv and Khorezm were the four principal divisions of Ancient Central Asia inhabited by the ancestors of the present-day Tajiks. Tajiks are now found only in historic Bactria and Sogdiana. Merv is inhabited by the Turkoman and Khorezm by Karakalpaks, Uzbeks and Kazakhs. The Sogdians were famous for being tall, massive, and of a fair colour, possibly resembling the Scythians. Among them Bactria and Khorezm were kingdoms during different period of history unlike Sogdiana and Merv which were geographical locations and vassals of different kingdoms. Sogdiana was made up of the Zeravshan and Kashka-Darya river valleys. Currently, One of the surviving peoples of Sogdiana who speak a dialect of the Sogdian language are the Yaghnobis and Shugnanis who live in the Northern region of Tajikistan around the Zeravshan valley. Bactria was located in northern Afghanistan (present-day Afghan Turkestan) between the mountain range of the Hindu Kush and the Amu Darya (Oxus) River and some areas of current south Tajikistan. During different periods, Bactria was a center of various Kingdoms or Empires, and is probably where Zoroastrianism originated. The Avestathe holy book of Zoroastrianismwas written in the old-Bactrian dialect; it is also thought that Zoroaster was most likely born in Bactria. Khorezm was a powerful Kingdom during some periods of its history, and is located south-east of the Aral Sea in what archeological discoveries indicated used to be a very fertile area. Merv is located in the Amu-Darya basin south of Khorezm. Achaemenid Period (550 BC–329 BC) During the Achaemenid period, Sogdiana was one of the provinces of the Persian empire. Among the cities of Tajikistan, Panjakent and Istarawshan are founded in that period. Hellenistic Period (329 BC–90 BC) For more details on this topic, see Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. Map of Alexanders empire. Map of Alexanders empire. After the Persian Empire was defeated by Alexander the Great, Bactria, Sogdiana and Merv, being part of Persian Empire, had to defend themselves from new invaders. In fact, the Macedonians faced very stiff resistance under the leadership of Sogdian ruler Spitamenes. Alexander the Great managed to marry Roxana, the daughter of a local ruler, and inherited his land. Following Alexanders brief occupation, the Hellenistic successor states of the Seleucids and Greco-Bactrians controlled the area for another 200 years in what is known as the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. During the time period from 90 BC to 30 BC, the Eastern Scythians destroyed the last Hellenistic successor states and, together with the Tocharians, (to whom they were closely related) created a Kushan Empire around 30 AD. [edit] Kushan Empire (30 BC–AD 410) For another 400 years, until AD 410, the Kushan Empire was a major power in the region along with the Roman Empire, the Parthian Empire and the Han Empire (China). Notable contact was made with local peoples when the envoys of the Han Dynasty journeyed to this area in the second century BC. At the end of the Kushan period, the Empire became much smaller and would have to defend itself from the powerful Sassanid Empire that replaced the Parthian Empire. The famous Kushan Shah Kanishka promoted Buddhism and during this ime Buddhism was exported from Central Asia to China. [edit] The Hephthalites (AD 410–565) The Hephthalites are considered to be another Scythian-related tribe although there is controversy about their name (which means White Hun) which normally refers to Mongolian-Turkish invaders. As later archeologists discovered, there are many factors that proved that Hephthalites were a bunch of many tribes with different origins. That means they were Turks, Mongols and some lesser scythian tribes that were turkizised (mostly by language). Their language was a Turkish dialect. In Bactria, their administrative language was the bactrian language. The Hephthalites were destroyed in 565 AD by a combination of Sassanid and Kok-Turk forces. [edit] Gokturk Rule (565–658) The origin of the Gokturks is uncertain, but it seems likely that they had lived to the South of the Altai Mountains until the year 542 AD. Chinese sources suggest that they were descended from the Huns and located to the North of them. (The Huns being another proto-Turkish tribe). [edit] Islamic Empires (710–1218) [edit] Arab Caliphate (710–867) The Age of the Caliphs Prophet Mohammad, 622-632 Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661 Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750 The Age of the Caliphs Prophet Mohammad, 622-632 Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661 Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750 The Transoxiana principalities never formed a viable confederacy. Beginning in 651 AD, the Arabs organized periodic marauding raids deep into the territory of Transoxania, but it was not until the appointment of Ibn Qutaiba as Governor of Khorasan in 705 AD, during the reign of Walid I, that the Caliphate adopted the policy of annexing the lands beyond the Oxus. In 715 AD, the task of annexation was accomplished. The entire region thus came under the control of the Caliph and of Islam, but the Arabs continued to rule through local Soghdian Kings and dihqans. The ascension of the Abbasids to rule the Caliphate (750 1258) opened a new era in the history of Central Asia. While their predecessors the Umayyads (661 750) were little more than leaders of a loose confederation of Arab tribes, the Abbasids set out to build a huge multi-ethnic centralized state that would emulate and perfect the Sassanian government machine. They gave the Near East and Transoxiana a unity, which they had been lacking since the time of Alexander the Great. [edit] Samanid Empire (900–999) For many years before the Arab invasion, Central Asia was divided into many different regions such as the Kingdom of Merv, Sogdiana, Bactria, Khorezm, Badakhshan: the only exception was Kushan Empire that was now reduced to parts of eastern Iran. Islam spread rapidly in Transoxiana. The new religion was received mostly by popular acclaim, for it promised greater social mobility and created favourable conditions for trade. With Islam there came Arabic that became the language of Abbasid court. It must also have stimulated the emergence of the Modern Persian language (Dari), in which the share of loan-words from Arabic fluctuated from 10 percent in the vocabulary of Rudaki (9th to 10th centuries) to 40 percent in the writings of Baihaqi (11th century). All in all, the volume of Arabic lexicon, its share in the vocabulary of the Dari language remained exceptionally high until the first quarter of the nineteenth century. The Samanid dynasty that ruled (819–1005) in Khorasan (Eastern Iran) and Transoxiana was founded by Saman Khuda . The Samanids were one of the first purely indigenous dynasties to rule in Persia following the Muslim Arab conquest. Not until the reign (892–907) of Saman Khudas great-grandson, Ismail I (khown as Ismail Samani), did Samanid power become extensive. In 900, Ismail defeated the Saffarids in Khorasan (area of current Northwest Afghanistan and northeastern Iran), while his brother was the governor of Transoxiana. Thus, Samanid rule was acclaimed over the combined regions. The cities of Bukhara (the Samanid capital) and Samarkand became centres of art, science, and literature; industries included pottery making and bronze casting. After 950, Samanid power weakened, but was briefly revitalized under Nuh II, who ruled from 976 to 997. However, with the oncoming encroachment of Muslim Turks into the Abbasid Empire, the Samanids were effectively defeated; in 999, Bukhara fell under a combined force of Ghaznavids and Qarakhanids. Ismail II (d. 1005), the last ruler of the dynasty, briefly fought (1000–1005) to retain Samanid territory, until he was assassinated. Although short during this period art and science of the Tajiks flourished, and many scholars of this period are still very highly regarded, notably Ibn Sina (Avicenna). The modern state of Tajikistan considers that the Tajik name and identity, although in existence for thousands of years in this area, began its formation during the Samanid period. The attack of the Qarakhanid Turks ended the Samanids reign and Samanid era civilization in 999 and dominance in Transoxiana passed on to Turkic rulers for nine centuries to come. [edit] Qarakhanids (999–1211) and Khwarezmshahs (1211–1218) After the collapse of Samanid Dynasty, Central Asia became the battleground of many Asian invaders who came from the north-east. [edit] The Mongols and their successors (1218–1740) [edit] Mongol Empire (1218–1370) The Mongol Empire swept through Central Asia invaded Khorezm and sacked the cities of Bukhara and Samarkand, looting and massacring people everywhere. edit] Timurid Empire (1370–1506) Timur, founder of the Timurid Empire, was born on 8 April 1336 in Kesh near Samarkand. He was a member of the Turkicized Barlas tribe, a Mongol subgroup that had settled in Transoxiana after taking part in Genghis Khans son Chagatais campaigns in that region. Timur began his life as a bandit leader. During this period, he r eceived an arrow-wound in the leg, as a result of which he was nicknamed Timur-e Lang (in Dari) or Timur the Lame, corrupted in the West to Tamerlane. Although the last Timurid ruler of Herat, Badi az Zaman finally fell to the armies of the Uzbek Muhammad Shaibani Khan in 1506, the Timurid ruler of Ferghana, Zahir-ud-Din Babur, survived the collapse of the dynasty and re-established the Timurid dynasty in India in 1526, where they became known as the Mughals. [edit] Shaybanid rule (1506–1598) The Shaybanid state was divided into appanages between all male members (sultans) of the dynasty, who would designate the supreme ruler (Khan), the oldest member of clan. The seat of Khan was first Samarkand, the capital of the Timurids, but some of the Khans preferred to remain in their former appanages. Thus Bukhara became the seat of the khan for the first time under Ubaid Allah Khan (r. 1533-1539). [edit] The Astrakhanid (Janid) dynasty (1598–1740) The period of political expansion and economical prosperity was short-lived. Soon after the death of Abd Allah Khan the Shaibanid dynasty died out, to be replaced by the Janid or Astrakhanid (Ashtarkhanid) dynasty, another branch of the descendants of Jochi whose founder was related through marriage to Abd Allah Khan. edit] Persian and Bukharan rule (1740–1920) [edit] Afsharid dynasty (1740–1756) In 1740, the Janid khanate was conquered by Nadir Shah, the Afsharid ruler of Persia. The Janid khan Abu al Faiz retained his throne, becoming Nadirs vassal. [edit] Manghit dynasty (1756–1920) After the death of Nadir Shah in 1747, the chief of the Manghit tribe, Muhammad Rahim Biy A zaliq, overcame his rivals from other tribes with the support of the urban population, consolidated his rule in the Khanate of Bukhara, and was proclaimed khan in 1756. His successor, however, ruled in the name of puppet khans of Janid origin. The third Manghit ruler, Shah Murad (r. 1785–1800), finally deposed the Janids and acceded to the throne himself. He did not assume the title of khan, preferring the title emir, as did subsequent Manghit rulers, because they were not of Genghisid descent. The Emirate of Bukhara was smaller under the Manghits than the khanate under their predecessors; it lost important provinces to the south of Amu Darya and the Syr Darya basin, and Merv, conquered by Shah Murad in 1785–1789, was lost in 1823. Under the Manghits, the administration of the country was more centralized. edit] Modern History: 1800s–Present [edit] Russian Vassalage (1868–1920) Conflict with Russia started in 1865, shortly after Russian conquest of Tashkent. Being more technologically advanced the Russians had little difficulty in conquering the regions inhabited by Tajiks, meeting fierce resistance only at Jizzakh, Ura-Tyube, and when their garrison at Samarkand was besieged in 1868 by forces from Shahr-e Sabz and the inhabitants of the city. The army of the Emirate of Bukhara was utterly defeated in three battles, and on 18 June 1868 Amir Muzaffar al Din (r. 860-1885) signed a peace treaty with the Governor-general of Russian Turkestan, Konstantin Petrovich Von Kaufman. Samarkand and the Upper Zeravshan were annexed by Russia and the country was opened to Russian merchants. The emir retained his throne as a vassal of Russia and made up his territorial losses by establishing, with Russian help, control over Shahr-e Sabz, and the mountainous regions in the upper Zeravshan Valley in 1870 and by annexing the principalities of the western Pamir in 1895. At the end of August 1920 the last emir, Sayyid Alim Khan, was overthrown as a result of the invasion f the emirate by Soviet troops, and on 6 October the emirate was abolished and the Bukharan Peoples Soviet Republic proclaimed. [edit] Soviet Rule (1920–1991) The national-administrative divisions placed the ancient Tajik cities, Bukhara and Samarkand, outside the Tajikistan SSR when the borders were drawn in 1928. As citizens of the Uzbek SSR, many Tajiks came under pressure to conform to their newly-ascribed Uzbek identity, and under threat of exile or worse for nonconformity, many were forced to change their identity. Tajik schools were closed and Tajiks were not appointed to leadership positions simply because of their ethnicity. [edit] Tajikistan (1991-Present day) In the last years of the Soviet Union (1986-1990), the Tajikistan SSR went through numerous positive changes due to mass protests and the initiative of a few notable members of the Majlisi Oli (Verkhovniy Soviet) or Parliament, which led the movement towards independence. During this time, use of the Tajik language, an official language of the Tajikistan SSR next to Russian, was increasingly promoted. Ethnic Russians, who had held many governing posts[citation needed], lost much of their influence and more Tajiks became politically active. Prominent independence movement leaders, also known as the Opposition, emerged. The Opposition led the mass protests in the capital city of Dushanbe and in August 1991 forced the ethnic Tajik Communist president K. Makhkamov to resign. The victory of Rahmon Nabiyev, another ethnic Tajik representative of the old guard from Soviet times, at the following presidential elections was disputed by a mixed opposition composed of nationalist liberals and Islamists. The political disagreements were an expression of the power struggle between different ethnic and regional groups, with people from the regions of Garm and Gorno-Badakhshan trying to wrestle power from hitherto dominant representatives of Leninabad and, to a lesser extent, Kulyab. [7] External influences, especially from Afghanistan, Uzbekistan[citation needed] and Russia[citation needed] also played a role. The increasingly violent clashes between the opposition and the government culminated in the Civil war in Tajikistan (1992-1997), in which the country was plunged into chaos and ethnic hostilities and at least one hundred thousand people were killed. [8][9] As a consequence of the war, after having been run by Leninabadis (people from the Khujand region) throughout the Soviet period,[10] Tajikistan is now almost entirely controlled by Kulyabis, from the home region of President Rakhmonov. Numerous notable individuals were murdered during the war and throughout the 1990s. This list includes journalist and politician Otakhon Latifi, journalist and Jewish leader Clayton Kirk, and politician Safarali Kenjayev. Since 1991, much of the countrys non-Muslim population, including Russians and Jews, has emigrated due to severe poverty and instability. In 1992, most of the country’s Jewish population was evacuated to Israel. Nevertheless, a number of opposition political parties have been legalized and are participating in elections, suggesting that the country may be stabilizing politically. Russian-led peacekeeping troops are based throughout the country[citation needed] (apart from their officers, most of these troops are, in fact, Tajiks), and Russian-commanded border guards were stationed along the border with Afghanistan until 2006. [11] In the winter of 2007/2008, Tajikistan faced, and is currently still facing, an energy crisis. A combination of one of the harshest winters in 50 years, frozen hydroelectric reservoirs, and a cut in natural gas imports from Uzbekistan on January 24 has led to this crisis.

Heres Whats Cool in Spanish

Here's What's Cool in Spanish This is a cool Spanish lesson. How would you translate the above sentence to Spanish? Look up the word cool in a Spanish-English dictionary, and chances are the first word youll find is fresco - but that word is used to refer to something that isnt quite cold. Some larger dictionaries include words such as guay  as a slangy term, but thats hardly the only word that can be used. Bueno Can Be Good If for some reason you need to convey the idea of cool and have a limited vocabulary, you can always use a word you probably already know, bueno, which means good. Its not a particularly cool word and doesnt come across as colloquial, but it will get most of your idea across. And of course, you can always use the superlative form, buenà ­simo, for something thats especially good. Cool Words Vary by Region There may no good Spanish equivalent of cool that works everywhere, but native Spanish speakers in a forum sponsored by this site offered their perspective on what may be best. Heres a part of their conversation, held originally in Spanish and English: Chabela: How do you says cool, like thats cool! What do the teenagers say? I know it cant be translated directly, but ... Cyberdiva: One word to use is chà ©vere. Duras: It cant be translated directly, because each country has its own versions. VictorIm: Chà ©vere is kind of old-fashioned (1960s). Is there anything new? Bandini: Duras is correct. Every country has its own vocabulary for words like this. The particular word you mentioned (chà ©vere) originated in Venezuela but due to Venezuelas major export (Spanish soap operas), the word is now become popular in a dozen other Spanish speaking countries, including Mexico. Rocer: In Mexico we understand the word chà ©vere, but we dont use it. Only if we talk to Venezuelans or Colombians, I guess. Adri: When I was studying in Spain last semester, I learned from a native-speaking friend of mine that they say guay or quà © guay. Guero: I think chido and buena onda would work well for cool. VictorIm: Buena onda sounds old-fashioned to me. Anything with onda sounds old. Are there any new expressions? Dulces: I have heard est chido and est padre in Mexico. SagittaDei: A very common translation is genial, est genial. Is very widely used in the Spanish-speaking world. As has been pointed out, there are many words depending on the country. I use est bacano/a, est una chimba, es una verraquera and many others; but these are Colombianisms. We also use the anglicism cool as in es muy cool. Rich teenagers like to use English in this way. It also depends on the social level. By the way, eso es chà ©vere is less expressive than eso es genial, the former is like thats nice. Note that you can use either estar or ser with the obvious difference of permanent and transitional attributes. Tottefins: In Mexico they say padre or chido on the streets. However, on Mexican television they say genial. Maletadesueà ±os: Here in Texas you often hear quà © chido, est chido, quà © padre, etc. Other people who arent from here that I have spoken with, such as my friend who lives in Venezuela, think these expressions seem comical as theyre Mexicanisms. Rupdaddy: I have heard the word brbaro. Most of my studies have been of the Spanish of the Rà ­o de la Plata, Argentina. I know that in Uruguay, at least among the youth, they say de ms. Chabela: I know that in Uruguay sometimes the youth say de ms. Those words are the same, more or less, with what the youth say in the U.S. In Mexico, particularly Tijuana, the word curada is widely used as meaning cool. Sometimes recurada is heard. Ive also heard the term chulado by people who come from Mexico City. OjitosLindos: I think in Spain the verb molar is used like gustar to mean something similar to cool, for example: Me mola el cine would mean I like the cinema or the cinema is cool. I think this is only used among young people (teenagers). Anderwm: Yes, you are right. Molar is a teenager thing. In Costa Rica and Nicaragua the people use tuane.

Dissertation proposal (The Level of Interest within Generation Y Essay

Dissertation proposal (The Level of Interest within Generation Y towards Social network Marketing) - Essay Example Background of Research Questions Social Network Marketing has gained prominence in the last decade as more and more companies are marketing primarily through social networking sites. The main purpose of social networking sites is to connect users with one another. As the internet age blooms with every passing year, social networking has become the most widely used communication tool by users around the world. ‘Compete.com (2008), a Web traffic analysis company, reported that the largest online social networking site (as of November 2008) was MySpace, with 56 million unique visitors per month, closely followed by Facebook, with 49 million unique visitors’ (Trusov, Bucklin and Pauwels, 2009). This addiction towards social networking presents marketers with a good opportunity of reaching towards consumers. Through social networks, brands develop a personality and provide a forum for the users to interact with the brand, thus making way for a more informal form of marketing. With the saturation in market that most industries are now facing, it becomes increasing hard to capture the attention of the consumers who have become cynical towards advertising and marketing in general. Social networking sites allow consumers to share their opinions, ideas and reviews about products and services. On account of this, social networking sites support word-of-mouth, which is the most effective form of advertising and specifically for the younger generation. With advertisers taking full use of their creative license, consumers have become wary of products advertising impossibility shiny long hair and a perfect social life. They simply do not believe these advertisements. This research will aim to uncover the connection that Generation Y has with social networking sites. With the advertising world changing at a very fast pace, it is important that marketers are able to connect with the Generation Y through their preferred platform. This research provides a way forward to marketers. Literature Review ‘Today’s Generation Y, encompassing individuals born between 1980 and 1995, represents an era of teens and young adults who grew up with technology and are among the most avid users of social networking’ (Rutledge, 2008) . Social Networking sites have become part of the life of Generation Y. As important as it is to have residential addresses, Generation Y considers it equally important to have a social networking address. Given the popularity of social networking sites among Generation Y, organizations have begun exploring advertising on these sites. ‘Social Networking is just one of the many consumer technologies, including blogs, wikis and virtual worlds, to cross over to the corporate world’ (Smith and Salvendy, 2009). But the advertising content must differ since Generation Y has become used to the traditional advertising techniques. They tend to tune out the advertising of women falling around men with just one spray of a perfume. To reach Generation Y, organizations have to more honest and direct in their advertising techniques (Garland, 2007). Generation Y is more of a rebel and has shaped their opinions and views around the opinions of views of their own peers. Parents have not been the guiding figures in the lives of Generation Y since they were raised in a time when both parents

Answer the Questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Answer the Questions - Assignment Example In section 5, he suggests the date of the elections to be the same time as in 2003 (Taras & Waddell, 55). In addition, in 6, there is an introduction for the additional thoughts. In section 7, he gives hope to other Canadians who have cancer. In section 8, he thanks the members of his party for the support they accorded him and encouraged them not to be dissuaded by others. In 9, he talks of the fulfillment of national goals among other issues (Taras & Waddell, 59). In addition, in section 10, he thanks the members of the political class in parliament. He encourages them and acknowledges their working together. In 11, he thanks, Quebecers for making right decisions during elections. In 12, he encourages the young people and tells them to be always determined. In section 13, it is to all Canadians. He encourages them and tells them to make their decisions and not be swayed by anyone. In 14, he tells his friends to be loving and optimistic for them to change the world. Section 15 is the conclusion and with his name (Turk & Wahl, 80). The order of the topics and sections is in such a way that the previous topic leads to the next. In paragraph 2, parallel structure occurs when there is repletion of the word â€Å"my† in â€Å"my home†, â€Å"my spirit† and â€Å"my determination†. Climactic order has been achieved when arranging the words â€Å"notes†, â€Å"cards† and â€Å"gifts†. Parallel structure helps to achieve rhythm in the letter. In paragraph 7, an example of metaphor is â€Å"My only other advice is to cherish every moment with those you love at every stage of your journey, as I have done this summer†. An example of personification is, â€Å"To other Canadians who are on journeys to defeat cancer†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The example of parallel structure is, â€Å"You have every reason to be optimistic, determined and focused†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Parallel structure also helps to achieve rhythm in the letter (Turk & Wahl,

Euro Behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Euro Behaviour - Essay Example From the report it is clear that  economic performance of a trade block depend more on individual countries performance. In our analysis, we intend to evaluate euro’s performance and as such will rely more on the overall activity within member countries. Euro is not political affiliated and thus depend in multi-nation policies regarding the member countries economic performance. When crisis in economic activity within one trade block occur, the effects easily spill to the global economic and asset market. The European Union, as a trade block, has frequently suffered such.According to the report findings  the links in international financial and asset markets are key determinants of a currency’s exchange rate. Single currency or states supremacy cannot influence the rates that her currencies are accorded. Macroeconomics teaches that multiple factors are put into play in regard to determining a currency’s worth in the international market. Individual states cur rency is rated on a scale that is unanimously accepted within the trading scope against a common denomination; majorly the U.S dollar, yen or the euro. However, the rates are never constant varying on the prevailing economic performances as determined by the World Bank. ‘Purchasing power parity’ (PPP) compares rates of trade and prices within a state. Projections of future interest rates of a currency relative to nominal interests are determined by the interest rate parity. (Cumby and Obstfeld, 1982, 1-2). Therefore, at the macro and micro level performance of an economy, the policies made always have an impact to the valuation of her currency. However, the determination of these indices within an economic block like the EU is not dependent on a single country but rather on sum of the overall economic performance of the economic block. The Euro use has expanded very much within the EU region and is now estimated to be in used throughout

Learn In Private Institutions In Getting Job Education Essay

Learn In Private Institutions In Getting Job Education Essay The current issues in education nowadays which is about the opportunity of students that learn in private institutions in getting job have been discuss and we look this issues as an important issues in our education in Malaysia. First of all, private education can be defined as an education where parents need to pay for rather than free education that was provided by the government. It is also known as an education that was provided by a private individual or organization, rather than by the state or public body. It means that it is not operated by the government. Private education often occurs among people who have high economy status. It has many private education institutions in our country and this education institutions is classified as private because it is controlled and managed by a non-governmental organization like Church, Trade Union or business enterprise or its Governing Board consist mostly of members not selected by a public agency. Usually this institution was established by the coalition of corporate bodies which make an investment towards these institutions. But many private institutions receive public subsidies especially in the form of tax breaks and students loans from the government. In the early 1990s, there were approximately 200 private colleges but no private university. But in 2011, there is exist 53 private universities including private university colleges, 6 foreign university branch campus and more than 500 private colleges. From this data we can see that the number of private institutions increasing rapidly from year to year. The number of private university is higher when we compared it with the public university. We can see the dumping of private institutions in our country compared to public institutions. Approximately 50% of the countrys total tertiary students enrolment population is in private higher education institutions. The increase in enrolment population within private higher education institutions demonstrated in staggering rise from only around 15 000 in 1985, to just about 35 000 in 1990 and just over 320 000 in 2005. The rank of private institutions can be classified based on its tier. Tier is known as a level of one institution is ordered. It has six tiers where tier 6 is the highest level and tier 1 is the lowest level. Tier 6 is known as outstanding and none of the private university in our country is classified in this tier. While for tier 5 it is categories as an excellent tier for example University Kuala Lumpur, University Technology Petronas and many more. AIMST University and University Tenaga Nasional is the example of university that in the tier 4 which is classified as very good. Tier 3 is classified as good and College University Insaniah is one of the universities in this tank. For tier 2 it is known as satisfactory and tier 1 is weak. It also has private stitutions that are not rated and it is because they do not have a specific place or their own building to make as a class. So it is hard for the government to give them the tier. DEFINES THE ISSUES PROBLEM FACED BY PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS It has many problems that private institutions need to face in term of preparing graduates, provide the facilities and serve the training to the students. It is because private institutions are fully operated by their own organizations without the helping from the government, so they need to find their own solutions to give the best services to their students. Students that enter to these institutions deserve to get the best services as they pay the expensive tuition fees. Therefore, private institutions definitely faced the problem in providing quality services to their students. The main problem that private institutions usually faced is in preparing the graduates. They have problem in prepared graduates that are able to compete globally and have entrepreneurship skills in the world of work. As we know in public institutions, students require to take the subject for entrepreneurship. It is because to provide students to be an entrepreneur in case that if they finish their studies and they still did not get work, so they can use the knowledge that they learn to build up their own business. But in private institutions, these subjects are not provided and not compulsory to the students to take this subject. So it is one of the problems that were faced by the private institutions in preparing good and quality graduates. Besides that, private institutions also have problems in preparing graduates that have good communications skills. As we know, usually many students that enter to the private institutions have low academic achievement and they do not get an offered to enter the public institutions and thats why they go to the private institutions. When they have low achievement in academic it is hard to develop good skills among them compared to high achiever students. It is hard for the lecturer to build a good communications skills among them. Students in private institutions also lack of moral values and disciplines. It is hard for the institutions to disciplining students because the rules and regulation is not too tight. Students are free to wear the clothes that they like and they can enter and skip the class whenever they want. Private institutions did not care about their students attendance and how their student dress. Because of that, the graduates from private institutions will lack of moral values compared to public graduates. They also lack of disciplines because they can do what they want and like in this private institutions that they pay for. The second problem that private institutions usually faced is in term of facilities. They cannot provide adequate facilities for students and this is because their spending was not enough and they need to buy all facilities for the teaching and learning process by itself. When they have inadequate facilities it will make their learning process not running smoothly and teacher cannot give their best services to the students. Facilities also the big problem that private institutions should face because equipment for learning is very important for students comforts. Private institutions cannot provide enough facilities because of inadequate financial. In addition, students also need to share the lab facilities when they are doing some research. It will make students feel uncomfortable when they need to share the equipment with their friends. Besides that, students also will lack of skill when they cannot do their research by their own. It also will limit students activities for example in doing research and as we know lab facilities is important for us to conduct some experiment. For students in higher institutions they need to conduct a research to make their learning process more effective and to make them more understand about some topic but when private institutions cannot serves enough facilities, their students learning will be limited. Financial problem is also the main factor why private institutions cannot provide enough lab facilities to their students because of the expensive price for lab facilities. Besides that in some private institutions it also has small classes. Classroom is the perfect place for the delivery of teaching and learning directly from the trainers to the students. Nevertheless, the extent of available comfort and the environment can stimulate students attention and acceptance towards the teacher. The issue of students overcrowding and too many students in a classroom are the problem that private institutions encounter. Sometime in one class it needs to accommodate and cater many students and it will make students feel uncomfortable during their learning process. Some private institutions only have a small building for their institutions and they only have very limited class. Because of excessive intake of students, the class for the students is not enough and they need to locate many students in a small class. In this case to reduce this problem, private institutions should limit their students intake and provide more classes for the learning process. Some priv ate institutions do not have enough places to allocate class because of small building. The third problem that private institutions face is in term of training. Most lecturers and staff in private institutions have less qualification and experience compared with the public institutions lecturer. Lecturer that was hired in private institutions usually less of teaching technique and some of them do not have qualification in teaching courses. Lecturer in private institutions usually only have degree qualification and only a few of them that have masters qualification. When they do not have qualification and less of teaching technique, their teaching will be less effective compared to the lecturers from public institutions. Private institutions are difficult to hire the quality teachers because many teachers fear that there are not secure if they work in private institutions. They more prefer to work in government sector compared with the private sector because government will give them more benefits. Besides that, private institutions also can expel them any time they want . That is why only the teacher that do not get placement in government want to works in private institutions because of no choices. Some private institutions need to hired teachers that have low qualifications because the shortage of teachers. When they have less qualification teacher, students also will get less skill. The lecturer in private institutions also always changed several time for one subject. This is because, there are part time lecturers in these institutions and often have business to deal with. So a replacement lecturer will come in instead. Sometimes public institutions need to hire the instructors that make a teaching profession as their part time job. So, the exchanging teachers always happen and this is the problem that private institutions need to face. Usually, teachers who work part-time in private institutions are just to earn extra income. Private institutions need to take this type of teachers because of the shortage of teachers problem that they face. Some of the graduates from universities also tried to get a job as a teacher in private institutions because they know that the requirement to be a teacher in private institutions is easy. They usually come from the fresh graduates that have no experience in teaching. In addition when the teachers always change, it will make the learning process not goes smoothly and students will be confused due to many teachers with different teaching technique. The training also one of the problem that need to faced by the private institutions in terms of provide a qualification and experience teachers. CURRENT WAY TO ADDRESS THE ISSUES ALTERNATIVE WAY TO SOLVE THE ISSUES Based on these problems, an alternative ways to solve the issues should be taken immediately. To overcome the issues of the opportunity of students that learn in private institutions in getting job, the private institutions and the government should take an action. Private institutions should implements some steps to create graduates that are not only able to compete but also able to create job in the world of work. It means that, private institutions should provide a courses or program that trained their students to be an entrepreneurship like entrepreneurship courses like the public institutions do. This course will prepared their students in case when they finish their study and they do not get work. When they have the knowledge on how to build a business they can create their own job after they finish their study. This will avoid them from unemployment problem. Besides that private institutions should provide the education system that relevant with the progress of the needs from the world of work. It means that, the syllabus of education that was provided by the private institutions should suitable with the world of work nowadays. Private institutions must prepare their students to have a good communication skill and can master English well. When their students have a good communications skill it will give them opportunity in getting job compared with the students that cannot master English well. Because we know that, English is very important in our world of work nowadays. Private institutions also should ensure that the courses offered get recognition by the government. This is because when the courses that were taken by the student did not get recognition by the government, it is hard for the private institutions graduates to get work due to not recognized degree. Private institutions should make sure that all the courses that were provided get the recognition first by the government. Companies usually do not want to hire graduates who have qualification which is not recognized by the government. In order to produce graduates that have good communications skills, private institutions should provide well-trained lecturer to teaching there. They cannot hire the teacher according to the needs but they need to choose the best lecturers that have qualification. This is because, students that study in private institutions pay for it and they deserve to get the best services compatible with the money they spend for it. To produce good students we need to provide good teachers. Courses on career planning should be held for graduates in various fields in order to create a well-trained human capital. Private institutions should plan some courses for their students in order to provide a quality graduates in the work field. For example they organize a program like Career and Training Fair for their students. Program like this will introduce them on how to prepare for the job interviews. Some of them will get knowledge from this program. Government also should take an action in order to solve these issues of getting job among students in private institutions. Government should limit the opening of private institutions in our country. This is because too many private institutions that were establish and for sure graduation from private institutions also increases. To avoid too many unemployment graduates, government should limit the approval from private agencies to open their private institutions. We can see nowadays the dumping of private institutions in our country compared with the public institutions. The intake of students to enter private institutions also should be limited in order to solve the issues of unemployment graduates. Government should issues the number of students that can be taken by private institutions each year so they know how much students they can take. Private institutions should take the students based on the conditions specified by the government. Besides that, government should ensure that private institutions take the qualified instructor to work there. Government should set the conditions required by all universities in order to take their instructor to teach there. If they take a qualified and experience teachers, they also will provide best students from their institutions. CONCLUSION

Drugs and Medicine Options Report Essay

Medicine and drugs have been used throughout history in order to improve upon the well being of the world’s population. Both are used most commonly as a way to improve health by altering the physiological state, sensory sensations, and emotions which in some cases could all be the result of the placebo effect. Nonetheless, these drugs and medicines offer a unique advantage to our societies because of the ways that they can offer so much support to our bodies. An important thing to remember about these drugs and medicines is how unique each particular one is to a specific function of the body, meaning the chemistry behind it is also very unique for the many different functions. What makes medicines and drugs so unique in our particular society is their use as pain relievers, deficiency supplements, as well as their use to balance systems and organs in the body. However, in order for any of these uses to actually take effect it requires for that medicine or drug to somehow be ingested into the bloodstream so that it can travel to its necessary location in the body. One of the most common ways that this is done is through oral ingestion with tablets, syrups, or drops. These oral methods are much slower than the rest because of how much slower the rate of absorption into the bloodstream from the stomach is. A more common way as far as more extreme medicines go is something like an IV, where a needle is stuck directly into a vein so that the medicine is immediately worked into the bloodstream. However, the oral methods will most likely remain the most common because of how comfortably and easily they can be ingested by people. Prior to ever considering working a medicine or drug into the bloodstream, a long and extensive set of procedures must be carried out. This first begins with the isolation of the new product from other variables that could alter the testing. This new drug is then prescribed to laboratory testing where its effects can be observed and measured. If these established effects from the experimentation prove to be significant, a market is observed as a possible window for the drug to be sold in. Once the window has been considered, more of the final tests begin on actual humans where a placebo effect has been considered as well. After these final tests have been finished, the medicine must be approved by the Food and Drug Administration as either an over the counter drug or one that requires a prescription. Antacids are bases that neutralize the excess acidity and thus relieve the pain associated with heartburn and peptic ulcers (Brown). The most commonly used bases for the reduction of excess acidity in the stomach are those that are weak since strong bases would offer a support that would be much too corrosive to the body tissue. The most effective of these commonly used bases is aluminum hydroxide because of the fact that it can completely neutralize three moles of hydrochloric acid for every one mole of aluminum hydroxide that is used. Another common metal oxide that is used is magnesium oxide because of how quickly it reacts and thus offers relief, however since it reacts so quickly the relief does not last for as long as it does with the other bases. The metal carbonates used as bases offer an alternative to the metal oxides but they also react to create carbon dioxide which results in antifoaming agents being required as well to make sure that the users are not throwing up. As discussed above, there are specific types of drugs that can be known to help with pain relief; these drugs are known as analgesics. There are really two different type of analgesics, strong ones that are more commonly known as narcotics, and milder analgesics that are typically the over the counter pain relievers. The stronger analgesics work by binding with the actual pain receptors in the brain to block the transmission of the pain signals between brain cells (Jordan). These stronger analgesics are also able to trick the body’s brain cells by producing analgesia to produce a false sense of well being. The most common of the stronger analgesics are ones such as heroin, codeine, and morphine. In contrast to the stronger analgesics, the mild ones actually work by attacking the source of pain at that same location by helping to slow down with the production of prostaglandins, which are the actual chemicals that cause pain. The other way that these milder analgesics more commonly reduce pain is my reducing the inflammation by constricting the blood vessels near the pain source. The more frequently used of these milder analgesics are ones such as aspirin and ibuprofen that are typically in every household. Depressants are drugs prescribed by a doctor that affect the central nervous system by changing the concentration of neurotransmitters causing a decrease in brain activity and breathing rate (Jordan). There are three main types of depressants being barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and alcohol. Alcohol is probably the most well known of all three because of the large dependencies on it in our society today. While under the influence of alcohol, a person’s judgment and decision making becomes severely impaired which is what can so commonly lead to so many incidents involving alcohol. Aside from being temporarily impaired from alcohol, it can also lead to permanent brain damage as well as a high level of dependency on the alcohol which can completely alter one’s behavior. Stimulants are the type of medicine or drug that seems to have the complete opposite effect of the depressants. The most common of these stimulants are drugs such as amphetamine, adrenaline, nicotine, and caffeine. Adrenaline and amphetamine have many similarities as far as how they actually stimulate the body but they are different in the sense that adrenaline can be naturally produced by the body where as amphetamines are solely synthetically produced. Nicotine being another stimulant is best known for its role in the addiction of smokers to their cigarettes. Nicotine can be very harmful to the body however as it can lead to cancer and it is very difficult to stop using after it has first been used. Looking back on the drugs and medicine in our culture today it can easily be seen that they do have a very positive role in our society but because of the power that they possess they can also be dangerous when not used properly. It is sometimes heard on the news of people dying from drug overdoses that involve heroin or codeine but the only reason that these occurrences are even a problem at all is because of the personal abuse from those using those drugs. When used properly and only when suggested to by a doctor, the drugs and medicine that are in our culture today provide a huge advantage for us as we try to improve upon how well we live our lives today. The important thing to remember here is that it is nearly always necessary to regulate the changes in medicine and drugs in our society despite how well we may seem to have it under control.

Acquisition in Multinational Coperation Essay

Purpose – This conceptual paper aims to draw upon recent complexity and organizational psychology literature to examine conï ¬â€šict episodes, exploring the limitations of the predominant research paradigm that treats conï ¬â€šict episodes as occurring in sequence, as discrete isolated incidents. Design/methodology/approach – The paper addresses a long-standing issue in conï ¬â€šict management research, which is that the predominant typology of conï ¬â€šict is confusing. The complexity perspective challenges the fundamental paradigm, which has dominated research in the conï ¬â€šict ï ¬ eld, in which conï ¬â€šict episodes occur in sequence and in isolation, with managers using one predominant form of conï ¬â€šict resolution behavior. Findings – The ï ¬ ndings are two-fold: ï ¬ rst, the behavioral strategies adopted in the management of these conï ¬â€šicts will be highly complex and will be determined by a number of inï ¬â€šuencing factors; and second, this moves theory beyond the two dimensional duel concern perspective, in that the adaptable manager dealing with these multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šicts will also need to consider the possible implications of their chosen strategy along with the changing micro environment in which they operate. Originality/value – This paper adds value to the ï ¬ eld of conï ¬â€šict theory by moving beyond two dimensions and exploring a sequential contingency perspective for conï ¬â€šict management within the organization. It argues that multiple conï ¬â€šict episodes can occur simultaneously, requiring managers to use differing behaviors for successful conï ¬â€šict management. Keywords Conï ¬â€šict management, Conï ¬â€šict resolution, Organizational conï ¬â€šict, Individual behaviour, Interpersonal relations Paper type Conceptual paper International Journal of Conï ¬â€šict Management Vol. 21 No. 2, 2010 pp. 186-201 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1044-4068 DOI 10.1108/10444061011037404 Introduction It is now over 40 years since Louis Pondy (1967) wrote his seminal article on conï ¬â€šict within the organization and its management and almost 20 years since his reï ¬â€šections on his earlier work were published (Pondy, 1989)[1]. In 1967 Pondy established what was for two decades the generally accepted paradigm of conï ¬â€šict: that conï ¬â€šict episodes occur as temporary disruptions to the otherwise cooperative relationships which make up the organization (Pondy, 1967). In his subsequent reï ¬â€šections on his earlier work and that of others, Pondy proposed that conï ¬â€šict is an inherent feature of organizational life, rather than an occasional breakdown of cooperation (Pondy, 1989). This radically challenged the previous paradigm. Indeed, Pondy (1989) even suggested that research into the phenomenon of cooperation within the organization could be beneï ¬ cial in providing further insight into conï ¬â€šict within the organization, implying that it was cooperation, not conï ¬â€šict, which was the anomalous state requiring investigation. Yet, for almost two decades, Pondy’s conceptualization of conï ¬â€šict as a natural state for the organization has remained largely unexplored despite the emergence of a complexity perspective which explores multiple elements of the conï ¬â€šict situation or cooperative state. One possible reason why Pondy’s challenge has not been answered is that some confusion has arisen over the terms and typologies used for the classiï ¬ cation of conï ¬â€šict episodes. Consequently, debates about conï ¬â€šict structure or composition have tended to dominate the research agenda. The potential for confusion arising from these various conï ¬â€šict classiï ¬ cations will be discussed in this paper. Where conï ¬â€šict management behaviors have been studied, researchers have tended to focus on a two-dimensional approach or â€Å"dual concern theory† model (Thomas, 1976) which suggests that individuals adopt conï ¬â€šict management behaviors based on their perceived self interests and those of others; i.e. concern for self (competitive behaviors) versus concern for other (accommodating behaviors). Although this approach to the research of conï ¬â€šict and its management ï ¬ ts well with Pondy’s (1967) original paradigm, it is challenged by the complexity perspective that has emerged in psychology research. The complexity perspective of intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict maintains that interpersonal relationships are more complex than hitherto thought, and that the unfolding conï ¬â€šict is inï ¬â€šuenced by a wide variety of conditions. Moreover the complexity perspective encourages the consideration of simultaneous complexity (more than one event occurring simultaneously) and of how the mode of conï ¬â€šict management affects the outcomes (Munduate et al., 1999). This fresh perspective has enabled researchers to examine the point at which behavioral style is changed and the effect on the conï ¬â€šict episode (Olekalns et al., 1996) and to look at how different behaviors are combined (Janssen et al., 1999). With the recent developments in the complexity perspective of conï ¬â€šict management research (Van de Vliert et al., 1997; Munduate et al., 1999), the time has come to further explore the possible consequences of the complexity perspective: whether it is in fact the case that conï ¬â€šict is an inherent condition within the organization (Pondy, 1989); whether conï ¬â€šict episodes do not occur in isolation but occur frequently and simultaneously (Euwema et al., 2003); and whether complex sequences of adaptive behaviors are required to continually manage the constantly changing intraorganizational, conï ¬â€šict environment. Before we can do this, and to provide a common ground for discourse, we ï ¬ rst need to examine some of the theories around conï ¬â€šict typology that have arisen in the psychology and management literature and which may be the cause of some confusion. Conï ¬â€šict terms and typologies â€Å"Conï ¬â€šict† is a broad construct that has been studied extensively across several disciplines covering a wide range of social interactions. Previous conï ¬â€šict research has identiï ¬ ed four main levels of conï ¬â€šict in the context of human behavior and relationships as summarized by Lewecki et al. (2003): (1) Intergroup conï ¬â€šicts between groups of individuals which can range in size and complexity due to the many relationships involved, including international conï ¬â€šict between nations. (2) Intragroup or intraorganizational conï ¬â€šicts arising within smaller groups which comprise the organization. A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 187 IJCMA 21,2 188 (3) Interpersonal conï ¬â€šict; that is, conï ¬â€šict at an individual level, conï ¬â€šict between individuals, or conï ¬â€šict between an individual and a group. (4) Intrapersonal conï ¬â€šict on a personal level, where the conï ¬â€šict occurs in one’s own mind. Although these four levels of conï ¬â€šict all appear across both the psychology and management literature, it is the third level (interpersonal conï ¬â€šicts within the organization or the reactions an individual or group has to the perception that two parties have aspirations that cannot be achieved simultaneously) that has become the central ï ¬ eld of research within the organization (Putnem and Poole, 1987). In 1992, Thomas proposed a simpliï ¬ ed deï ¬ nition of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict as the process which begins when an individual or group feels negatively affected by another individual or group. The conï ¬â€šict consists of a perception of barriers to achieving one’s goals (Thomas, 1992). More recently, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict has been deï ¬ ned as an individual’s perceptions of incompatibilities, differences in views or interpersonal incompatibility (Jehn, 1997). Conï ¬â€šict at this level has mostly been seen as adversarial and as having a negative effect upon relationships (Ford et al., 1975). These deï ¬ nitions presuppose that an opposition or incompatibility is perceived by both parties, that some interaction is taking place, and that both parties are able to inï ¬â€šuence or get involved – that is. that there is some degree of interdependence (Medina et al., 2004). Interpersonal conï ¬â€šict could arise within organizations where, for example, customer-facing departments such as Sales make promises to customers that other departments then have to deliver. In this domain of intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict, both Pondy’s (1966, 1967) work and recent developments adopting the complexity perspective are of particular interest This broad area of intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict has been further subdivided into two types: relationship conï ¬â€šict and task conï ¬â€šict. Relationship conï ¬â€šict arises between the actors through their subjective emotional positions, whereas task conï ¬â€šict relates primarily to the more objective tasks or issues involved (Reid et al., 2004). A series of studies conï ¬ rmed this duality between relationship and task. Wall and Nolan (1986) identiï ¬ ed â€Å"people oriented† versus â€Å"task oriented† conï ¬â€šict. In the early to mid-1990s Priem and Price (1991), Pinkley and Northcraft (1994), Jehn (1995) and Sessa (1996) all identiï ¬ ed â€Å"relationship† and â€Å"task† as discrete aspects of conï ¬â€šict. The picture became rather more complicated in the late 1990s. In 1995 Amason et al. redeï ¬ ned conï ¬â€šict types as â€Å"affective† and â€Å"cognitive† and in 1999 Van de Vliert further redeï ¬ ned these types as â€Å"task† and â€Å"person† conï ¬â€šict. In working toward a more comprehensive model of intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict, Jameson (1999) suggested three dimensions for conï ¬â€šict: (1) content; (2) relational; and (3) situational. The content dimension encompasses the previously discussed conï ¬â€šict types (affective, cognitive, relationship etc) while the relational dimension considers the subjective, perceived variables within the relationships of the actors involved: . trust; . status; . . . . A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory seriousness; degree of interdependence; record of success; and the number of actors involved. The situational dimension examines the variables which may be most relevant in selecting an appropriate conï ¬â€šict management strategy. These include time pressure, the potential impact of the conï ¬â€šict episode, the degree of escalation and the range of options available in the management of the conï ¬â€šict episode (Jameson, 1999). Meanwhile, Sheppard (1992) criticized the multiplicity of terms that were being used to describe types of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict, and the needless confusion that this caused. The result of the many approaches described above is that there is no general model for the typology of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict within the organization. In the absence of such a model, other researchers have taken different approaches, using the antecedents of the conï ¬â€šict episode to describe conï ¬â€šict types. Examples of this proliferation include role conï ¬â€šict (Walker et al., 1975), gender conï ¬â€šict (Cheng, 1995) and goal conï ¬â€šict (Tellefsen and Eyuboglu, 2002). This proliferation of terms or typologies has unsurprisingly led to confusion, most noticeably with the term â€Å"interpersonal conï ¬â€šict† being used to describe purely relationship or emotional conï ¬â€šict (Bradford et al., 2004) or conï ¬â€šict being deï ¬ ned in terms of emotion only, adding to the wide range of terms already used (Bodtker and Jameson, 2001). Thus, at a time when international, interorganizational, intraorganizational, interpersonal and intrapersonal conï ¬â€šicts are being extensively studied with conï ¬â€šict deï ¬ ned and operationalized in a variety of ways, no widely accepted and consistent model has emerged to shape conï ¬â€šict research (Reid et al., 2004). Table I summarizes the many different conï ¬â€šict typologies that have been proposed. Table I illustrates that relationship and task conï ¬â€šict are almost universally accepted as distinct types of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict by psychology and management researchers. Date Author(s) Conï ¬â€šict typology 1986 1991 1994 1995 1995 1996 1996 1997 1999 1999 2000 2000 2002 2003 2003 2004 2004 2005 Wall and Nolan Priem and Price Pinkley and Northcraft Jehn Amason et al. Sessa Amason Amason and Sapienza Jameson Janssen et al. Friedman et al. Jehn and Chatman Tellefsen and Eyuboglu Bradford et al. De Dreu and Weingart Reid et al. Tidd et al. Guerra et al. People oriented, task oriented Relationship, task Relationship, task Relationship, task Cognitive, affective Task, person oriented Affective, cognitive Affective, cognitive Content, relational, situational Task, person oriented Relationship, task Task, relationship, process Goal conï ¬â€šicts Interpersonal, task Relationship, task Relationship, task Relationship, task Relationship, task 189 Table I. A summary of the typologies of conï ¬â€šict IJCMA 21,2 190 In addition, many researchers have identiï ¬ ed a third type of conï ¬â€šict which relates to the environment in which managers operate, described as situational conï ¬â€šict ( Jameson, 1999) or process conï ¬â€šict ( Jehn and Chatman, 2000). We believe that a consistent conï ¬â€šict typology is called for, to aid future research into the complex nature of intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict. In this paper, we propose that future researchers should recognize three types of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict. However, since the terms â€Å"relationship† and â€Å"task† are vulnerable to misinterpretation we advocate using the terms affective and cognitive (following Amason, 1996 and Amason and Sapienza, 1997), in conjunction with process (Jehn and Chatman, 2000), to describe the three types of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict. These terms, which reï ¬â€šect the more speciï ¬ c terminology used in the psychology literature, are deï ¬ ned in Table II. As Table II shows, the t ypology we propose is as follows. Affective Conï ¬â€šict is a term describing conï ¬â€šicts concerned with what people think and feel about their relationships including such dimensions as trust, status and degree of interdependence (Amason and Sapienza, 1997). Cognitive Conï ¬â€šict describes conï ¬â€šicts concerned with what people know and understand about their task, roles and functions. Process Conï ¬â€šict relates to conï ¬â€šicts arising from the situational context, the organization structure, strategy or culture (Amason and Sapienza, 1997; Jehn and Chatman, 2000). Using this typology for conï ¬â€šict between individuals or groups of individuals within the organization avoids confusion over the use of the terms â€Å"interpersonal†, â€Å"person† or â€Å"relationship† often used when referring to affective conï ¬â€šict, while task conï ¬â€šict is clearly distinguished from process conï ¬â€šict, addressing all the issues previously outlined. These terms will therefore be used throughout the remainder of t his paper. Having argued that taxonomic confusion has hindered conï ¬â€šict research through the misuse of existing taxonomies (Bradford et al., 2004) or where language has resulted in the use of different terms to describe the same conï ¬â€šict type (see Table I), we now move on to consider the implications or consequences of intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict and whether it is always negative or can have positive consequences (De Dreu, 1997). Consequences of conï ¬â€šict: functional or dysfunctional? Some researchers exploring attitudes towards conï ¬â€šict have considered the consequences of conï ¬â€šict for individual and team performance (Jehn, 1995) and have found that interpersonal conï ¬â€šict can have either functional (positive) or dysfunctional (negative) outcomes for team and individual performance (e.g. Amason, 1996). Moreover, the consequences of conï ¬â€šict can be perceived and felt in different ways by different actors experiencing the conï ¬â€šict episode (Jehn and Chatman, 2000). Thus, conï ¬â€šict is situationally and perceptually relative. Conï ¬â€šict type Affective Table II. A proposed taxonomy of conï ¬â€šict Deï ¬ nition Conï ¬â€šicts concerned with what people think and feel about their relationships with other individuals or groups Cognitive Conï ¬â€šicts concerned with what people know and understand about their task Process Conï ¬â€šicts arising from the situational context, the organization structure, strategy or culture The traditional view of conï ¬â€šict takes the view that conï ¬â€šict exists in opposition to co-operation and that conï ¬â€šict is wholly dysfunctional, putting the focus on resolution rather than management (e.g. Pondy, 1966). This perspective can be traced forward to more recent work. Where conï ¬â€šict is deï ¬ ned as the process which begins when one person or group feels negatively affected by another (Thomas, 1992), there is an implication of obstruction to either party achieving their goals, which is readily interpreted negatively. This can result in conï ¬â€šict avoidance or suppression of conï ¬â€šict management behavior, leading to perceived negative consequences on team or individual performance (De Dreu, 1997). Negatively-perceived conï ¬â€šict episodes can increase tension and antagonism between individuals and lead to a lack of focus on the required task (Saavedra et al., 1993; Wall and Nolan, 1986) while avoidance and suppression can also have long term nega tive consequences such as stiï ¬â€šing creativity, promoting groupthink and causing an escalation in any existing conï ¬â€šict (De Dreu, 1997). Not surprisingly, where interdependence is negative (where one party wins at the expense of the other although they have some dependency in their relationship) any conï ¬â€šict will be viewed negatively (Janssen et al., 1999). The perception of conï ¬â€šict will also be negative where the conï ¬â€šict is personal, resulting in personality clashes, increased stress and frustration. This type of relationship conï ¬â€šict can impede the decision-making process as individuals focus on the personal aspects rather than the task related issues (Jehn, 1995). In contrast to the somewhat negative perception of intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict outlined above, more recent conï ¬â€šict management theory has begun to suggest that certain types of conï ¬â€šict can have a positive effect upon relationships and that the best route to this outcome is through acceptance of, and effective management of, inevitable conï ¬â€šict, rather than through conï ¬â€šict avoidance or suppression (De Dreu, 1997). When individuals are in conï ¬â€šict they have to address major issues, be more creative, and see different aspects of a problem. These challenges can mitigate groupthink and stimulate creativity (De Dreu, 1997). Naturally, where there is high positive interdependence (an agreeable outcome for both parties), the conï ¬â€šict episode will be viewed much more positively (Janssen et al., 1999). Moreover, Jehn (1995) has suggested that task- and issue-based cognitive con ï ¬â€šict can have a positive effect on team performance. Groups who experience cognitive conï ¬â€šict have a greater understanding of the assignments at hand and are able to make better decisions in dealing with issues as they arise (Simons and Peterson, 2000). For example, research has shown that, when individuals are exposed to a â€Å"devil’s advocate†, they are able to make better judgments than those not so exposed (Schwenk, 1990). Schulz-Hardt et al. (2002) suggested that groups make better decisions where they started in disagreement rather than agreement. In these examples, conï ¬â€šict has a functional (useful and positive) outcome. We have argued that the notion of functional conï ¬â€šict has shifted the ï ¬ eld of conï ¬â€šict research away from conï ¬â€šict resolution and towards consideration of the management behaviors which can be adopted in dealing with conï ¬â€šict in order to gain the best possible outcome (De Dreu, 1997; Euwema et al., 2003 ). Next, we examine research into conï ¬â€šict management behaviors and explore some of the managerial tools that have been developed to help managers to deal with intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict. Conï ¬â€šict management behaviors Conï ¬â€šict management can be deï ¬ ned as the actions in which a person typically engages, in response to perceived interpersonal conï ¬â€šict, in order to achieve a desired goal A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 191 IJCMA 21,2 192 (Thomas, 1976). Demonstrably, conï ¬â€šict management pays off: previous research has indicated that it is the way in which conï ¬â€šict episodes are addressed which determines the outcome (Amason, 1996). However, there is disagreement between researchers as to the degree to which managers can and do adopt different conï ¬â€šict management behaviors. Previous research has considered three different approaches: the â€Å"one best way† perspective (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984); the contingency or situational perspective (Thomas, 1992; Munduate et al., 1999; Nicotera, 1993); and the complexity or conglomerated perspective (Van de Vliert et al., 1999; Euwema et al., 2003). Arguably the simplest perspective on conï ¬â€šict management behavior is the â€Å"one best way† perspective (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984), which agues that one conï ¬â€šict management style or behavior (collaboration) is more effective than any other. However, it argues that individuals have a parti cular preferred behavioral predisposition to the way in which they handle conï ¬â€šict. Thus, from the â€Å"one best way† perspective, the conï ¬â€šict-avoiding manager may have a behavioral predisposition to avoidance strategies, whereas the accommodating manager may prefer accommodating solutions. In this paradigm, the most constructive solution is considered to be collaboration, since collaboration is always positively interdependent – it has a joint best outcome, generally described as â€Å"win/win† (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). The â€Å"one best way† approach suggests that a more aggressive, competitive, negatively interdependent approach (in fact, any conï ¬â€šict management approach other than collaborative) can result in suboptimal outcomes (Janssen et al., 1999). However, the â€Å"one best way† perspective raises more questions than it answers. It does not explain how managers are able to collaborate if they have a different behavioral predisposition, nor does it provide evidence that collaboration always produces the best outcome (Thomas, 1992). A more general problem with the â€Å"one best way† approach is that it may not be very useful: if managers truly have little or no control over their approach to conï ¬â€šict management, the practical applications are limited. The â€Å"one best way† perspective does not consider the passage of time, that behaviors could be changed or modiï ¬ ed during any interaction, nor the effect any previous encounters may have on the current experience (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). Moving beyond the â€Å"one best way† perspective, in which only collaborative behaviors are considered to provide the most desirable outcome, the contingency perspective maintains that the optimal conï ¬â€šict management behavior depends on the speciï ¬ c conï ¬â€šict situation, and that what is appropriate in one situation may not be appropriate in another (Thomas, 1992). In this paradigm, the best approach is dependent upon the particular set of circumstances. The implications, which are very different to the â€Å"one best way† perspective, are that individuals can and should select the conï ¬â€šict management behavior that is most likely to produce the desired outcome. Thus, conï ¬â€šict management behaviors are regarded as a matter of preference (rather than innate, as in the â€Å"one best way† view), and the outcome is dependent on the selection of the most appropriate mode of conï ¬â€šict management behavior. Until recently, conï ¬â€šict research has been heavily inï ¬â€šuenced by the â€Å"one best way† and contingency perspectives, focusing on the effectiveness of a single mode of conï ¬â€šict management behavior (primarily collaboration) during a single conï ¬â€šict episode (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984). Thus the â€Å"one best way† and contingency perspectives do not necessarily o ffer a real-world view in which managers both can and do change their behaviors: adapting to the situation; perhaps trying different approaches to break a deadlock or to improve their bargaining position; taking into account changing circumstances in the microenvironment; and the subsequent inï ¬â€šuence upon the actions of individuals involved in any conï ¬â€šict episode (Olekalns et al., 1996). A fresh approach is provided by the complexity perspective, which characterizes conï ¬â€šicts as being dynamic and multi-dimensional. In such circumstances, the best behavioral style in dealing with any one conï ¬â€šict episode may vary during, or between, conï ¬â€šict episodes (Medina et al., 2004; Nicotera, 1993). For conï ¬â€šict in a complex world, neither the â€Å"one best way† nor the contingency perspective would necessarily produce optimal results. If conï ¬â€šict does not occur discretely and individually (Pondy, 1992a), existing approaches may not describe the world as managers actually experience it. Arguably, these approaches have artiï ¬ cially limited conï ¬â€šict research to a ï ¬â€šat, two-dimensional model. To address the shortcomings of traditional research and to incorporate the complexity perspective into conï ¬â€šict management theory, we need to move beyond two dimensions (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). Beyond two dimensions of conï ¬â€šict management theory Recent work by Van de Vliert et al. (1997) and Medina et al. (2004) has expanded current theory through consideration of the complexity perspective. The complexity perspective argues that any reaction to a conï ¬â€šict episode consists of multiple behavioral components rather than one single conï ¬â€šict management behavior. In the complexity perspective, using a mixture of accommodating, avoiding, competing, compromising and collaborating behaviors throughout the conï ¬â€šict episode is considered to be the rule rather than the exception (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). To date, studies taking a complexity approach to conï ¬â€šict management have adopted one of three different complexity perspectives. The ï ¬ rst examines simultaneous complexity and how different combinations of behaviors affect the outcome of the conï ¬â€šict (Munduate et al., 1999). The second complexity approach focuses on the point of behavioral change and the outcome, examining either the behavioral phases through which the participants of a conï ¬â€šict episode pass, or apply temporal complexity to look at the point at which behavioral style changes and the effect on the conï ¬â€šict episode (Olekalns et al., 1996). The third approach is the sequential complexity or conglomerated perspective, which is concerned with the different modes of conï ¬â€šict management behavior, how they are combined, and at what point they change during the interaction. The application of the complexity perspective to conï ¬â€šict management research has revealed that managers use more than the ï ¬ ve behaviors suggested by the â€Å"one best way† perspective to manage conï ¬â€šict. In their study of conglomerated conï ¬â€šict management behavior, Euwema et al. (2003) argued that the traditional approach under-represents the individual’s assertive modes of behavior and have as a result added â€Å"confronting† and â€Å"process controlling†, making seven possible behaviors: (1) competing; (2) collaborating; (3) avoiding; (4) compromising; (5) accommodating; A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 193 IJCMA 21,2 194 (6) confronting; and (7) process controlling. Weingart et al. (1990) identiï ¬ ed two types of sequential pattern: Reciprocity, responding to the other party with the same behavior; and Complementarity, responding with an opposing behavior. Applying a complexity perspective, the effectiveness of complementarity or reciprocity behaviors will be contingent upon the situation, the micro-environment, the number of conï ¬â€šict episodes, and the types of conï ¬â€šict present. The sequential pattern may in itself be complex, being dependent both upon the current situation and on varying behaviors throughout the interaction. A further, often unrecognized implication of complexity in conï ¬â€šict is that each conï ¬â€šict episode could be unique, being composed of different proportions of each of the affective, cognitive and process conï ¬â€šict types (Jehn and Chatman, 2000). The implication for conï ¬â€šict management strategy and the choice of the most appropriate behavior is immense. Therefore, a new perspective is needed, in which conï ¬â€šict and the response to conï ¬â€šict is viewed as dynamic and changing over time, with each conï ¬â€šict episode having a unique composition requiring a speciï ¬ c but ï ¬â€šexible approach in order to obtain the best possible outcome. We propose that this might result in a manager changing behavior during a conï ¬â€šict episode, or indeed a manager adopting different behaviors for a number of conï ¬â€šict episodes occurring simultaneously. In the next section, we take all these complex factors into account and propose a single, dynamic and comprehensive model of conï ¬â€šict management behavior. Multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šict episodes We have shown that the ï ¬ eld of conï ¬â€šict has become entangled in multiple terms and that research into conï ¬â€šict management is struggling to reconcile two-dimensional models with the more complex situation encountered in the real world. A model is needed which considers the complexity of conï ¬â€šict episodes and separates conï ¬â€šict antecedents from conï ¬â€šict types, recognizing that conï ¬â€šict can relate to emotions and situations which have common antecedents. We propose that the way forward is to expand the conglomerated perspective into a sequential contingency perspective, in which the sequence of conï ¬â€šict management behaviors adopted is dependent upon a number of inï ¬â€šuencing factors in the micro-environment, the number of conï ¬â€šict episodes being dealt with, their composition, and changes in the behaviors of the actors involved. A sequential contingency perspective The sequential contingency perspective for intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict proposes the adoption of an alternative paradigm which is that conï ¬â€šict is ever-present and ever-changing in terms of its nature or composition; and that it is the way in which these continuous conï ¬â€šicts is managed which determines the outcome of any conï ¬â€šict episode and the nature of any subsequent conï ¬â€šicts. Figure 1 provides a visualization of Pondy’s (1992b) postmodern paradigm of conï ¬â€šict and provides a foundation for the investigation of complex, multiple, simultaneous, intraorganizational conï ¬â€šicts. This conceptual visualization of conï ¬â€šict within the organization provides a three-dimensional representation of conï ¬â€šict from the paradigm that conï ¬â€šict is an inherent feature of organizational life. It shows how, at any one given point in time, A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 195 Figure 1. A conceptual visualization of multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šict there can be a number of conï ¬â€šict episodes experienced (y axis), each with different intensities (z axis) and duration (x axis). In addition, we have argued that each conï ¬â€šict episode will have a unique composition, being made up of different proportions of cognitive, affective and process elements. The implications for conï ¬â€šict management theory are twofold: ï ¬ rst, the behavioral strategies adopted in the management of these conï ¬â€šicts will be highly complex and will be determined by a number of inï ¬â€šuencing factors; and second, this moves theory beyond the two dimensional duel concern perspective, in that the adaptable manager dealing with these multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šicts will also need to consider the possible implications of their chosen strategy along with the changing micro environment in which they operate. Using this three-dimensional conceptual visualization of conï ¬â€šict within the organization we propose a sequential contingency model for managing interpersonal conï ¬â€šict within the organization (Figure 2). The basic elements of the framework in Figure 2 consider all the dimensions of conï ¬â€šict and its management as previously discussed: . the conï ¬â€šict episode characteristics, the type and composition of any conï ¬â€šict episode encountered (Amason, 1996; Jehn, 1995; Jehn, 1997; Pinkley and Northcraft, 1994); . the characteristics of the relationship(s) (Jehn, 1995); . the characteristics of the individuals involved; . the conï ¬â€šict management behaviors; and . the outcome of previous conï ¬â€šict episodes (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). IJCMA 21,2 196 Figure 2. A sequential contingency model for managing intra-organizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict The basic postulate of the model is that conï ¬â€šict is a constant and inherent condition of the organization (that is, that conï ¬â€šict episodes do not occur as isolated, anomalous incidents). Additionally, the effectiveness of the conï ¬â€šict management behaviors in terms of its functionality or dysfunctionality is contingent upon, and moderated by, the nature of the conï ¬â€šict, the characteristics of the individuals and relationships involved, and experience of previous conï ¬â€šict. Thus, this model provides a framework for dealing with multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šict episodes moving beyond the tradition two-dimensional approach. Future research To date there has been little empirical research into the degree to which individuals are able to adapt their behavior during an interaction, or on the value of the complexity perspective in dealing with complex intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict. The future research agenda needs to explore conï ¬â€šict through Pondy’s (1992b) alternative paradigm and expand on these theoretical ï ¬ ndings by investigating intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict in a number of ways. We therefore set out a research agenda framed in terms of four research propositions. First, taking the sequential contingency perspective and adopting Pondy’s (1989) alternative paradigm for conï ¬â€šict within the organization, research is needed to establish the occurrence of conï ¬â€šict. Pondy (1992b) argues that, rather than a sequence of discrete isolated incidents, conï ¬â€šict is an inherent condition of social interaction within the organization and that conï ¬â€šict episodes occur simultaneously not sequentially. This would imply that: P1a. Conï ¬â€šict is a constant condition of interorganizational, interpersonal relationships. A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory P1b. Multiple conï ¬â€šict episodes occur simultaneously. P1c. Conï ¬â€šict episodes are complex, having differing compositions of affective, cognitive and process elements which change over time. The complexity perspective recognizes that different conï ¬â€šict situations call for different management behaviors (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). This implies that managers can call upon a much wider range of approaches to conï ¬â€šict management than previously thought. Moreover there is a further implication, which is that managers are able to adapt their behavior during conï ¬â€šict episodes. Thus: P2a. Managers use different behaviors to manage multiple conï ¬â€šicts at any one time. P2b. Managers change their behavior over time during the same conï ¬â€šict episode. A substantial branch of recent conï ¬â€šict management research has focused on the outcomes of conï ¬â€šict and has suggested that not all conï ¬â€šict is negative (De Dreu, 1997; Simons and Peterson, 2000; Schultz-Hardt et al., 2002; Schwenk, 1990). Given this, we need a greater understanding of the effect that the behavior adopted has on the conï ¬â€šict experienced, whether it mitigated or agitated the situation, and the consequences for any subsequent conï ¬â€šict (Amason, 1996). Thus: P3a. The behaviors that managers use affect the outcome of the conï ¬â€šict. P3b. The behaviors that managers use affect subsequent conï ¬â€šicts. Finally, re-visiting Pondy’s (1989) alternative paradigm and incorporating the additional perspectives that come from consideration of conï ¬â€šict outcomes and the application of the complexity perspective, we argue that more research is needed into the relationship between the behaviors that managers adopt and whether these behaviors represent the conscious adaptation of an optimal approach to conï ¬â€šict management. Thus: P4. Conï ¬â€šict management involves adapting a set of behaviors through which a degree of co-operation is maintained, as opposed to the use of behavior(s) which resolve(s) discrete isolated incidents of conï ¬â€šict. Our purpose in setting out a new model and research agenda for conï ¬â€šict management research, together with a set of detailed research propositions, is to move the ï ¬ eld beyond the consideration of conï ¬â€šict episodes as discrete, isolated incidents and to encourage the investigation of different behaviors in different circumstances and their effectiveness. Future research needs to consider the complexity of conï ¬â€šict and adopt a research paradigm which considers the behavioral strategies within long term complex interpersonal relationships. Conclusion This paper has offered four contributions to the ï ¬ eld of conï ¬â€šict and conï ¬â€šict management. The ï ¬ rst is the clariï ¬ cation of conï ¬â€šict typologies set out in Table II. The 197 IJCMA 21,2 198 second contribution is the notion that business managers handle multiple and simultaneous conï ¬â€šict episodes that require different approaches to resolving them, so that the existing models proposed for conï ¬â€šict management are unlikely to chime with their actual experience. The third contribution is to map this in the form of a new theoretical model for conï ¬â€šict management (Figure 2). The fourth contribution is to use this theoretical model to set out a set of research propositions to shape research that will shed light on the real conï ¬â€šicts that managers have to face. Just 40 years on, and intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict theory itself appears to be in conï ¬â€šict. 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(1990), â€Å"Tactical behavior and negotiation outcomes†, International Journal of Conï ¬â€šict Management, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 7-31. Further reading Amason, A.C., Hochwarter, W.A., Thompson, K.R. and Harrison, A.W. (1995), â€Å"Conï ¬â€šict: an important dimension in successful management teams†, Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 24 No. 2, pp. 20-35. Blake, R.R. and Mouton, J.S. (1964), The Managerial Grid, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, TX. De Dreu, C. and Weingart, L.R. (2003), â€Å"Task versus relationship conï ¬â€šict, team performance, and team member satisfaction: a meta-analysis†, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 88 No. 4, pp. 741-9. Deutsch, M. (1973), The Resolution of Conï ¬â€šict, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. Friedman, R., Tidd, S., Currall, S. and Tsai, J. (2000), â€Å"What goes around comes around: the impact of personal conï ¬â€šict style on work conï ¬â€šict and stress†, International Journal of Conï ¬â€šict Management, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 32-55. Guerra, M.J., Martinez, I., Munduate, L. and Medina, F.J. (2005), â€Å"A contingency perspective on the study of the consequences of conï ¬â€šict types: the role of organizational culture†, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 157-76. Lewicki, R.J. and Sheppard, B.H. (1985), â€Å"Choosing how to intervene: factors affecting the use of process and outcome control in third party dispute resolution†, Journal of Occupational Behavior, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 49-64. Tidd, S.T., McIntyre, H. and Friedman, R.A. (2004), â€Å"The importance of role ambiguity and trust in conï ¬â€šict perception: unpacking the task conï ¬â€šict to relationship conï ¬â€šict linkage†, International Journal of Conï ¬â€šict Management, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 364-84. About the authors  ´ James Speakman is Assistant Professor of International Negotiation at IESEG Business School, a member of Catholic University of Lille, where his attentions are focused on sales and negotiation. After working for 16 years in key account management sales he completed his PhD research at Cranï ¬ eld School of Management, where, using the Critical Incident Technique with an Interpretive Framework for coding to investigate intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict and the behavioral sequences adopted in the management of these complex interpersonal, intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict episodes. Other research interests include personal selling, past, present and future, where he conducted the US research for a multinational study on the future of personal selling and negotiation in context where his research interests include multi-cultural negotiation. James Speakman is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: I.Speakman@IESEG.FR Lynette Ryals specializes in key account management and marketing portfolio management, particularly in the area of customer proï ¬ tability. She is a Registered Representative of the London Stock Exchange and a Fellow of the Society of Investment Professionals. She is the Director of Cranï ¬ eld’s Key Account Management Best Practice Research Club, Director of the Demand Chain Management community and a member of Cranï ¬ eld School of Management’s Governing Executive. To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 201